Forest carbon offset (FCO) projects play an increasingly important role in mitigating climate change through market mechanisms in both compliance and vol-untary markets. However, there are challenges and barriers to developing an FCO project, such as carbon leakage and cost-effectiveness. There have been few attempts to sum-marize and synthesize all types and aspects of existing chal-lenges and possible solutions for FCO projects. This paper systematically reviews and discusses the current challenges involved in developing FCO projects, and then draws on the experience and lessons of existing projects to show how those challenges were addressed in world-leading voluntary carbon standards, namely the Verified Carbon Standard, the American Carbon Registry, the Climate Action Reserve, and Plan Vivo. These voluntary markets have rich experience in FCO projects and are responsible for a significant share of the market. From the 53 publications used in this analy-sis, three broad thematic categories of challenges emerged. These were related to methodology, socio-economic impli-cations, and implementation. Methodological challenges, particularly additionality, permanence, and leakage, were the focus of 46％ of the selected research papers, while socio-economic challenges, including transaction, social, and opportunity costs, were addressed by 35％. The remain-ing 19％ of the research articles focused on implementational challenges related to monitoring, reporting, and verification. Major voluntary standards adequately addressed most of the methodological and implementational barriers by adopting various approaches. However, the standards did not ade-quately address socio-economic issues, despite these being the second most frequently discussed theme in the papers analyzed. More research is clearly needed on the socio-eco-nomic challenges involved in the development of FCO pro-jects. For the development of high-quality forestry carbon offset projects, there are many challenges and no simple, universal recipe for addressing them. However, it is crucial to build upon the current science and move forward with carbon projects which ensure effective, long-term carbon sinks and maximize benefits for biodiversity and people; this is particularly important with a growing public and private interest in this field.

Chunyu Pan;Anil Shrestha;John L.Innes;Guomo Zhou;Nuyun Li;Jinliang Li;Yeyun He;Chunguang Sheng;John-O.Niles;Guangyu Wang

Faculty of Forestry,University of British Columbia,2424 Main Mall,Vancouver,BC V6T 1Z4,Canada;Zhejiang Prov Key Lab of Carbon Cycling Forest Ecosystem,Zhejiang A&F University,Linan 311300, People's Republic of China;China Green Carbon Foundation,No.18,Hepingli Dongjie, Beijing 100714,People's Republic of China;College of Economics and Management,Northeast Forestry University,Harbin 150040,People's Republic of China;University of California,San Diego,9500 Gilman Drive,La Jolla,San Diego,CA 92093,USA

林业研究（英文版）

[1]Chunyu Pan;Anil Shrestha;John L.Innes;Guomo Zhou;Nuyun Li;Jinliang Li;Yeyun He;Chunguang Sheng;John-O.Niles;Guangyu Wang-.Key challenges and approaches to addressing barriers in forest carbon offset projects)[J].林业研究（英文版）,2022(04):1109-1122

FCO,untary,additionality,permanence,implementational,quately

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